Thrips palmi Karny, 1925

Thripinae, Thripidae, Terebrantia, Thysanoptera

Figure 1	Figure 2	Figure 3	Figure 4
Figure 5	Figure 6	Figure 7	Figure 8
Figure 9

Figures

Fig. 1: 7-segmented antenna, segments III and IV with forked sense cone, terminal segments VI and VII
Fig. 2: Head dorsal with ocellar triangle
Fig. 3: Pronotum
Fig. 4: Meso- and metanotum
Fig. 5: Fore wing and fore wing basal region
Fig. 6: Sternites VI and VII
Fig. 7: Tergites VI and VII
Fig. 8: Tergites VIII and IX
Fig. 9: Tergites IX-XI

Thrips palmi is a highly polyphagous and a key pest, particularly on plants belonging to Cucurbitaceae and Solanaceae. It causes direct feeding damage and damage due to transmission of tospoviruses. Both sexes fully winged. Body and legs yellow, major setae light brown; antennal segments IV & V brown distally, VI & VII brown; fore wings pale. Antennae 7-segmented; segments III & IV slightly constricted at apex and with forked sense cone, VII short (Fig. 1). Head wider than long; with 2 pairs of ocellar setae, pair I absent, pair III small and arising outside the ocellar triangle; postocular setae I longer than postocular setae III, postocular setae II minute (Fig. 2). Pronotum with 2 pairs of posteroangular setae; anterior and posterior margin each with 3-4 pairs of setae (Fig. 3). Mesofurca with spinula. Metanotum with irregular longitudinal lines converging to posterior margin, with curving transverse lines at anterior; median setae longer than laterial setae and arising behind anterior margin; campaniform sensilla present (Fig. 4). Mid and hind tarsi 2-segmented. Fore wing first vein usually with 3 (or 2) setae on distal half; second vein with a complete row of about 15 setae; clavus with 5 marginal setae, clavus terminal seta longer than subterminal seta (Fig. 5). Tergite II with 4 lateral marginal setae; tergites V-VIII with ctenidia present laterally (Fig. 7), on VIII posteromedial to spiracles; posterior margin of VIII with complete comb of long and slender microtrichia (Fig. 8 and 9); pleurotergites without discal setae. Sternite II with 2 pairs of marginal setae, III-VII with 3 pairs, the median pair on VII arising in front of margin; sternal marginal setae almost as long as sternites; sternites without discal setae (Fig. 6).
Male similar to female but smaller; tergite VIII with marginal comb complete medially; tergite IX S1 setae slightly shorter than S2 and a little closer to S2 than to each other; sternites III-VII with narrow transverse glandular area.

The genus Thrips L., 1758
There are nearly 300 species currently recognized in the genus Thrips making this genus one of the largest taxa within the order Thysanoptera. The genus was redefined progressively during the 1970's (see Mound et al. 1976), to include many species previously placed in Taeniothrips. The genus Thrips now includes a range of species, some with the antennae 7-segmented, others 8-segmented, and a few with the number of segments varying between 7 and 8. Similarly, some species have few setae on the fore wing first vein, whereas others have a complete row of setae on this vein. The species with a complete setal row on the first vein were placed from some taxonomists in the genera Isothrips or Isoneurothrips. However, all of the species in Thrips have the following character states: antennal segments III & IV with forked sense cone, absence of ocellar setae I, pronotum with 2 pairs of elongate posteroangular setae, paired ctenidia laterally on the tergites V-VIII, tergite VIII ctenidium arising posterior to the spiracle (in contrast to species of the genus Frankliniella). Other character states, such as number of antennal segments, number of setae on the fore wing veins, and number of discal setae on the abdominal sternites are variable between species (Mound & Masumoto 2005; Nakahara 1994; Palmer 1992). Identification keys are available for the species of this genus from many parts of the world. Of particular importance is the published key by Mound (2010) for members of the genus Thrips from Afro-tropical region as well as previous Lucid keys from Moritz et al. (2001, 2004, 2009).

Thrips palmi is very similar to some other Thrips species - like Thrips nigropilosus, Thrips pusillus and Thrips tabaci. Thrips palmi has sternites and pleurotergites without discal setae (Thrips acaciae, Thrips brevisetosus, Thrips florum, Thrips gowdeyi, Thrips hawaiiensis and Thrips simplex, all of them have sternites III-VII with at least 1 pair of discal setae and pleurotergites without discal setae; Thrips australis, Thrips microchaetus, Thrips subnudula and Thrips tenellus, all of them have sternites III-VII with at least 1 pair of discal setae and pleurotergites with discal setae; Thrips orientalis and Thrips parvispinus with discal setae on sternites III-VI but not on sternite VII, and without discal setae on pleurotergites).
Thrips palmi is the only species inside this group that has campaniform sensilla on metanotum (in other three species absent) and 4 lateral marginal setae on tergite II (other species only with 3 marginal setae). Compared to other three species in this group, the body color of Thrips palmi is always pale without any brown markings on tergites, whereas others often exhibit at least some brown shadings medially on tergites. Inside this group most of the species have no alternating short and long postocular setae on head (in Thrips nigropilosus present), metanotal median setae that are longer than lateral setae (except Thrips tabaci with shorter median setae), 1-3 distal setae on fore wing first vein (only Thrips tabaci with 2-6, usually 4, distal setae), median setae of tergites II-VIII no more than 0.3 as long as median tergite length (except for Thrips nigropilosus with median setal pair unusually long and at least half as long as median length of tergite), tergites with one or without sculptured lines between median pair of setae (compared to Thrips nigropilosus with two or more transverse lines of sculpture extending medially across the tergites), and pleurotergites without many rows of fine microtrichia (present in Thrips tabaci). Furthermore, only Thrips nigropilosus is one of few members of the genus Thrips that produce short-winged adults. Thrips palmi as well as Thrips pusillus have the metanotal median area sculptured lines transverse at anterior, but longitudinal and mostly parallel on posterior half (compared to Thrips tabaci and Thrips nigropilosus with metanotal sculptured lines transverse at anterior, but forming equiangular or irregular longitudinal and large reticulations on posterior half).
Species of the Thrips are similar to species of Stenchaetothrips, Microcephalothrips abdominalis, Larothrips dentipes and Fulmekiola serrata, because of tergites V-VIII bear a pair of ctenidia laterally, which are placed on tergite VIII posteromedial to the spiracle, and all species have no ocellar setae I. In contrast to species with craspedum on tergites II-VII (Microcephalothrips abdominalis, Larothrips dentipes and Fulmekiola serrata), species of Thrips and Stenchaetothrips have no posteromarginal craspedum on tergites and sternites. Species of Thrips as well as Fulmekiola serrata and species of Stenchaetothrips have 2 pairs of elongate posteroangular setae (Microcephalothrips abdominalis with 2 pairs of moderately elongate pronotal setae and Larothrips dentipes without elongate setae). Compared to the species of Thrips, Microcephalothrips abdominalis, and Larothrips dentipes, which have ocellar setae II on head much shorter than or about as long as III, Fulmekiola serrata and species of Stenchaetothrips have ocellar setae II much longer than III, and sternites always without discal setae.

Life history
As with other thrips species the life cycle from egg to adult is dependent on temperature. The total cycle can take about 15 days (Lewis 1973) to over a month. Adults may live for more approximately two months producing several generations in one year depending on seasons. With greenhouse temperatures the developmental time from egg to adult can decrease to about one week. A complete generation may be completed in about 20 days at 30°C, but it is lengthened to 80 days when the insects are cultured at 15°C (Capinera 2000). The melon thrips female reproduces with or without copulation where unmated females produce male progeny and mated females produce females. Thrips palmi has six developmental stages which are usually found in different habitats within the same plant e.g. eggs in the leaf, flower and fruit tissue, 1st instar larvae on the leaves, flowers and fruits, 2nd instar larvae on the leaves, flowers and fruits, propupae in the soil, pupae in the soil and adults on the leaves, flowers and fruits.

Host plants
Highly polyphagous, particularly on Cucurbitaceae and Solanaceae.
Crops: apple, aubergine, avocado, beans (broad bean, cowpea, pea (Pisum sativum), soyabean, bitter melon, carnation, chilli, chrysanthemum, citron, cotton, cucumber, Dahlia sp., mulberry, muskmelon, mustard, onion, orange, orchids, peach, pepper, potato, pumpkin, sesame, sweat potato, tea, tobacco, tomato, watermelon.

Vector capacity
Capsicum chlorosis virus (CaCV)
Calla lily chlorotic spot virus (CCSV)
Groundnut bud necrosis virus (GBNV)
Melon yellow spot virus (MYSV)
Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV)
Watermelon bud necrosis virus (WBNV)
Watermelon silver mottle virus (WSMoV).

Damage and symptoms
Breeding in flowers and on leaves, Thrips palmi can be found in pockets, cracks or crevices on host plants. At inspection, silvery feeding scars on the leaf surface, especially alongside the midrib and veins, can be seen. Heavily infested plants are characterized by a silvered or bronzed appearance of the leaves, stunted leaves and terminal shoots, and scarred and deformed fruits. Individuals may be found on all parts of many kinds of plants (Sakimuraet al. 1986).

Detection and control strategies
Thrips palmi are highly attracted to blue coloured sticky traps or water traps (Layland et al. 1994; Huaping et al. 1997) and blue stripped traps (Blue-D) which could be used for monitoring the pest (Chu et al. 2006). Profenofos, avermectin and carbofuran were the most effective insecticides on outdoor vegetables. Supplementary cultural and mechanical methods were required to control the pest (Kawai 1990). High degree of resistance to pesticides, high reproductive rate and lack of biological control agents constrain their management in most countries (Breithaupt 2000).
Crop rotation with non-host crops could considerably reduce their numbers. Use of plastic mulches (black or transparent), dry stubble mulches can reduce the thrips infestation (Breithaupt 2000). Predatory anthocorid bugs such as Orius similis, Orius tantillus, Orius sauteri, Orius insidiosus (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) (Breithaupt 2000; Kawai 1995; Nagai et al. 1991; Nagai et al. 1988); predatory mites such as Amblyseius mckenziei and Amblyseius okinawanus (Acarina: Phytoseiidae) (Kajita 1986) and predatory thrips Franklinothrips vespiformis (Araraki & Okajima 1998) are observed to predate on Thrips palmi.
The larval parasitoid, Ceranisus menes and the egg parasitoid Megaphragma sp.have been in observed to parasitize Thrips palmi in Japan and Thailand (Breithaupt 2000).
Application of a mycoinsecticides, Verticillium lecanii (=Lecanicillium longisporum) reduced the population of Thrips palmi under greenhouse conditions (Saito 1992). More than 80% of Thrips palmi observed on abandoned aubergine crop in Trinidad and Tobago were infected with Hirsutella (Hall, 1992). Apart from these entomopathogenic fungus like Neozygites parvispora (Saito et al. 1989) and Beauveria bassiana (Kurogi et al. 1993; Castineiras et al. 1996) are reported to infect Thrips palmi (Breithaupt 2000).
Exposure to 60% CO₂ atmospheres at 30°C results in 100% mortality of five different thrips species, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), Frankliniella intonsa (Trybom), Thrips tabaci Lindeman, Thrips palmi Karny, and Thrips parvispinus Karny (Seki & Murai 2012).

Additional notes
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Biogeography

Widespread throughout the wet tropics: Asia, the Pacific, Caribbean, and North, Central and South America, Africa and Oceania. Its spread is restricted by temperatures and humidity favoring wet tropical climates however, it is likely to survive greenhouse conditions in temperate regions. Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Réunion, Sudan (Ghubshan), Uganda.

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